UG Aid

Confused between confounding and effect modification?? Here is the solution: 1- Confounding bias : Alcohol ( exposure ) Oral cancer ( outcome ) Smoking is a confounding bias here. Why ? Because smoking is related to BOTH the exposure and the outcome. People who smoke will more often than not, also drink, and people who have oral cancer, were probably smokers ( smoking is a known risk factor for oral cancer). 2- Effect modification : OCPs ( exposure ) Breast cancer (outcome ) Family history of breast cancer is an effect modification here. Can you guess why ? Asbestos ( exposure ) Lung cancer(outcome) Smoking is an effect modification Estrogens ( exposure ) DVT (outcome ) Smoking is an effect modification So do you notice the difference ?? The effect modification is ONLY related to the outcome, but NOT to the exposure. Think with me here : smoking does not effect neither asbestos exposure nor estrogen levels or intake,BUT definitely is a risk for lung cancer and DVT !! Family histo...

           Autopsy writing is compulsory question in university exam. It is relatively easy if you have read pathology properly but it is time consuming. we have to recollect all characteristic points of different condition and write in specific format. Here are the characteristic points for frequently asked conditions so revising it become easy and time saving. I hope this helps!!! Basic Common Theme:   Name, age, sex, admitted on, died on   Brief clinical history   Summary of lab investigation   Clinical diagnosis   Autopsy findings   External appearance   Weight of organs Normal weight           •    Lungs 450gm(left) 550gm (right)           •    Spleen 150-200gm           •    Liver 1200gm           •  ...