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Confused between confounding and effect modification?? Here is the solution: 1- Confounding bias : Alcohol ( exposure ) Oral cancer ( outcome ) Smoking is a confounding bias here. Why ? Because smoking is related to BOTH the exposure and the outcome. People who smoke will more often than not, also drink, and people who have oral cancer, were probably smokers ( smoking is a known risk factor for oral cancer). 2- Effect modification : OCPs ( exposure ) Breast cancer (outcome ) Family history of breast cancer is an effect modification here. Can you guess why ? Asbestos ( exposure ) Lung cancer(outcome) Smoking is an effect modification Estrogens ( exposure ) DVT (outcome ) Smoking is an effect modification So do you notice the difference ?? The effect modification is ONLY related to the outcome, but NOT to the exposure. Think with me here : smoking does not effect neither asbestos exposure nor estrogen levels or intake,BUT definitely is a risk for lung cancer and DVT !! Family histo...

This question is asked sometime as short-note and very difficult to find so I have collected info and made this….. Mycoplasma: Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria that lack a cell wall around their cell membrane. Mycoplasma L-form of Bacteria Due to absence of cell wall Due to loss of cell wall, bacteria becomes l-form Biochemical and antigenic property of its own Retains parent bacterial properties filterable Non- filterable Minimum reproductive unit 125-250nm Minimum reproductive unit 600nm (larger) Sterols are required for growth Not required Pathogenic Nonpathogenic Eg. - Streptococcus L-form: L - form bacteria, also known as L -phase bacteria, L -phase variants, and cell wall-deficient (CWD) bacteria, are strains of bacteria that lack cell walls.