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Rate (300/big squares or 1500/ Small Squares) - bradycardia/tachycardia? (n: 60-100/minute) Rhythm - regular/irregular? - sinus rhythm? (regular P preceding QRS) - nodal rhythm? (normal QRS, absent P) - ventricular rhythm? (P follows QRS, QRS length >0.12s/3 small Boxes) - atrial fibrillation? QRS irregularly irregular, No discernible P. - atrial flutter? Sawtooth appearance. Regular QRS Axis (I 0deg; II +60deg; aVF +90deg; III +120deg; aVR -150deg; aVL -30deg) - Mean frontal axis? At 90deg to isoelectric complex. - Left axis deviation? -30deg to -90deg. - Right axis deviation? +90deg to +180deg. P-wave (Positive in I,II,aVF, V4-V6) - Sinoatrial block? Complete/partial - Left atrial hypertrophy? Bifid P. " P mitrale " - Right atrial hypertrophy? Peaked P. " P pulmonale " P-R interval (start of P to start of QRS) - Delayed AV conduction? (>0.2s/5 squares) - Accessory conduction? (<0.12s/3 squares) QRS Complex - Ventricular condu...

As these are difficult to understand and find examples of, i have compiled some info in easiest way i could.  I hope it helps you all :) Hawthorne effect:   the alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed. Pygmalion effect:   Investigator inadvertently conveys his high expectations to subjects, who then produce the expected result.  A " self-fulfilling prophecy ". Berkson bias: usually occurs when cases and controls are selected from hospital inpatients.More specifically, when both the exposure and outcome affect the selection and leads to a false negative association.It looks confusing but just look at this example: Consider an investigator studying a relation between diabetes and CHD.He goes to a hospital and gets a list of people admitted with CHD and he selects equal number of controls(inpatients not having CHD). Let us create a 2x2 table here CHD + CHD - Exposure (DM) + a ...

Vaccine requirement is calculated as follows: Total number of pregnant women/infants to be covered × Expected coverage × Number of doses of the vaccine ×Wastage multiplication factor ÷ No. of sessions to be held (or number of doses per vial). No. of pregnant women = Population × Birth rate. No. of infants = Population × Birth Rate × (1-IMR) For Monthly Requirement, divide annual dose by 12. If sessions are held fortnightly, the annual required dose is divided by 24 and if weekly, divide by 52. Expected vaccine coverage=100%=1 Vaccine Dose up to 1 year Doses/Vial Wastage factor TT for pregnant women 2 doses per women 10 doses/vial 1.33 BCG 1 dose per child (at birth) 10 doses/vial 2 OPV 4 dose per child (0,1,2,3) 20 doses/vial 1.33 Pentavalent 3 dose per child (1,2,3) 10 doses/vial 1.33 DPT 3 dose per child (1,2,3) 10 dose...

Early Post-operative Complications- FETISH F- Flat Anterior Chamber E- Bacterial Endophthalmitis T- Toxic Anterior Segment Syndrome I-   Iris prolapse S-  Striate keratopathy H- Hyphaema Late Post-operative Complications- ABCDEFG A- After cataract B- Pseudophakic Bullous keratopathy C- Cystoid Macular Edema D- Retinal Detachment E- Epithelial ingrowth/ Endophthalmitis F- Fibrous downgrowth G- Glaucoma-in-aphakia and pseudophakia

Mnemonic:   ATROPI in Y oung G irl A - Antibiotic Spray T - Teflon Paste R - Remove Crust O - Oestradiol Therapy P - Placental Extract    - Potassium Iodide I - Irrigation In - Insert Fat, Cartilage Y - Young’s Operation G - Glucose In Glycerine    - Girls-(Female More Affected)

tran SV er S e fracture - Seventh palsy, Vertigo and Sensorineural hearing loss. l O ngitudinal fracture - here O indicates OTORRHEA more common here...

Mnemonic : HARDS H - Hypertrophy with Hoarseness A - Abscess (Peritonsillar - Quinsy) R - Recurrent Sore Throat M - Malignancy Is Suspected S - Seizures (Febrile Seizures Due to Tonsillitis)

Mnemonic : SCAN your nose S - shaped deformity C - shaped deformity A - Anterior dislocation N - Nasal spur * Deviation may involve only the cartilage, bone or both. *S -shaped deformity may cause bilateral nasal obstruction.

Mnemonic:  COW TO MEN C - Young Children O - Only hearing ear W - Works in high construction,diving,air travels T - Tympanic membrane perforation O - Otitis externa M - Meniers disease E - Exostosis N - works in Noisy surroundings

Mnemonic : H e ARD better after stapes surgery H - hearing threshold 30 db or worse A - air - bone gap 15 db R - rinne negative for 256,512 Hz D - discrimination speech score 60%

Mnemonic: Coffee Board C-Chronic Maxillary Sinusitis O-Oroantral Fistula F-Fungal Sinusitis F-Foreign Body of Maxilla E-Ethmoidectomy E-Elevation of Floor of Orbit in Orbital Fracture B-Biopsy O-Opening of Maxillary Sinus for Maxillary Artery Ligation A-Antr choanal Polyp R-Reduction of Fracture Maxilla D-Dental Cyst

Mnemonic : "MERA FRCP" M=Mucocele of Frontoethmoidal/Sphenoid Sinus E=Epistaxis R=Recurrent Acute Bac. Sinusitis A= A C Polyp F= Fungal Sinusitis R= Removal of Foreign Body C= Chronic Bac. Sinusitis P=Polypoid Rhinosinusitis

           Autopsy writing is compulsory question in university exam. It is relatively easy if you have read pathology properly but it is time consuming. we have to recollect all characteristic points of different condition and write in specific format. Here are the characteristic points for frequently asked conditions so revising it become easy and time saving. I hope this helps!!! Basic Common Theme:   Name, age, sex, admitted on, died on   Brief clinical history   Summary of lab investigation   Clinical diagnosis   Autopsy findings   External appearance   Weight of organs Normal weight           •    Lungs 450gm(left) 550gm (right)           •    Spleen 150-200gm           •    Liver 1200gm           •  ...

PRELOAD Maneuvers: - Maneuvers that INCREASE PRELOAD or Venous return :- Leg raise / Squatting Maneuvers that Decrease Preload or venous return :- Standing / Valsalva ALL MURMURS increase in intensity [= Worsen] with INCREASE in Venous return[=blood volume inside heart] EXCEPT HOCM and MV Prolapse . (They reduce in intensity[=Improve]). AFTERLOAD maneuvers :-   Hand grip= Increases After load. [This is like squatting of upper limb but since upper limb unlike leg has very small amount of blood- this doesn't affect venous return only effect- increase in AFTER LOAD.] AFTER LOAD maneuvers [unfortunately] DO NOT HAVE uniform rule [like PRELOAD manuevers]. Consider Murmur groups in FORWARD FLOW AND BACKWARD FLOW MURMURS.              Backward flow - Aortic Regurg/ Mitral regurg/ and VSD              Forward flow - MS /HOCM and MVP   WITH HANDGRIP- Inc...

Mnemonic : VODKA V - Penicillin V O - Oxacillin D - Dicloxacillin K - Cloxacillin A - Amoxicillin, Ampicillin

Mnemonic : RED LIP M ahatma G andhi R - Rheumatoid Arthritis E - Extraintestinal amoebiasis D - Discoid lupus erythematosis L - Lepra reaction I - Infectious mononucleosis P - Photogenic reactions M - Malaria G - Giardiasis

Macrolides are drug of choice for: Mnemonic: CLAW C - Chancroid by H. Ducreyi L - Legionella infections A - Atypical Pneumonia W - Whooping Cough by Bordetella pertusis other uses: Azithromycin - Diptheria and gram positive organisms, Prophylaxis of MAC infection, Chlamydial urogenital infections, H.influenza and Neisseria infections. Clarithromycin - Prophylaxis and treatment of MAC, peptic ulcer by H.pylori Spiramycin - DOC for treatment of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy.

Tetracyclines are first choice drugs for: Mnemonic : LG BPL CAR  L - Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) G - Granuloma Inguinale B - Brucellosis P - Plague phrophylaxis L - Lyme's disease (doxy) C - Cholera A - Atypical pneumonia due to chlamydia R - Relapsing fever (doxy)       Rickettsial Infection (doxy) Other uses: Mnemonic: Leprosy MAPS Leprosy(mino) M - meningococcal carrier (mino), malaria prophylaxis (doxy) A - Amoebiasis (doxy) P - Peptic ulcer by H.Pylori (tetra) S - SIADH (demeclo)

Mnemonic : BARE TB B - Bacterial meningitis A - Anaerobic infections R - Ricketsia infection E - Ear & Eye infection T - Typhoid B - Brucellosis